Seroprevalence and Risk Factors in Humans and Animals While few human study participants showed leptospiral-specific antibodies (1.6%, based on the MAT), the bovine and doggie populations seemed to have a higher exposure to leptospires, with an overall seroprevalence of 36.9% and 47.6%, respectively. dogs from different rural and urban areas in Bhutan and tested the serum for antibodies Syk specific for leptospires with a screening of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and a confirmatory microscopic agglutination test (MAT). In humans, 17.6% were seropositive by ELISA and 1.6% by MAT. The seropositivity was stronger in bovines (36.9%) and dogs (47.6%). Having experienced a fever recently (OR 5.2, = 0.004), working for the military (OR 26.6, = 0.028) and being unemployed (OR 12.9, = 0.041) (reference category = housemaker) were statistically significantly associated with seropositivity LY2228820 (Ralimetinib) when controlled for the effects of other risk factors. However, due to the small number of positive test results, the findings on risk factors should LY2228820 (Ralimetinib) be interpreted with caution. Based on the serogroups found in the three species, dogs could be a source of contamination for humans, or dogs and humans are exposed to the same environmental risk factors Clinical leptospirosis in humans and domestic animals should be investigated by testing blood and urine for the presence of leptospires by molecular methods (qPCR). (= 12) in Gedu, a semi-urban town. In one rat, was detected by qPCR [17]. In an unpublished statement from 2009, seroscreening of cattle at the National Jersey Breeding Centre in the Samtse district indicated the presence of serovar (sv) Hardjobovis with a seroprevalence of 5%. A second unpublished statement from a serosurvey in 2014C2015 found 138 of 520 cattle to be positive for sv Lai Like (36.2%), followed by sv Hebdomadis (21.7%) and sv Pomona (15.9%) [18]. In Bhutan, spp. vaccination is not practiced in any animal species (T. Tshokey, personal communications). The majority of Bhutans populace (= 734,374 in 2018 [19]), live in a rural setting and the main occupation is usually agriculture. Close contact to livestock and dogs occurs LY2228820 (Ralimetinib) on a daily basis and rodents infesting homes are a common sight. Although medical professionals suspect that leptospirosis may be contributing to a substantial quantity of febrile illness cases in the community, information around the leptospirosis burden and published data are currently lacking. The objectives of our research were to identify exposure to spp. in eight districts of Bhutan by determining the seroprevalence in humans, bovines and dogs. We also aimed to understand whether animals are exposed to and play a role as potential service providers of leptospires. Further objectives were to investigate potential risk factors for seropositivity in humans, such as occupation, contact to animals, rural vs. LY2228820 (Ralimetinib) urban lifestyle or altitude, in order to inform the public health sector. 2. Methods 2.1. Study Populations, Samples and Data Collection Human component: We used serum samples and epidemiological data, which were collected in a cross-sectional study from January to March 2015 during the dry winter and early spring season, to establish the seroprevalence of rickettsial antibodies in the healthy Bhutanese populace, as described elsewhere [20] (Questionnaire to be found in Supplementary Material). In brief, 8 districts from Bhutans 20 districts were selected through a probability proportionate to size method (PPS, multistage cluster sampling). The eight districts are outlined in Table 1. From each district, a rural and an urban area were selected by the same method resulting in 16 sampling sites in total (8 urban and 8 rural). Each of the 8 selected districts contributed 108 households (76 rural and 32 urban), taken from a list developed during previous national surveys. After the selection of a household, all eligible household members (13 years old) were outlined, and one member was selected randomly. Participation was voluntary and written consent was obtained. Table 1 Number (n) and percentage (%) of sampled persons, bovines and dogs, and spp. seropositive figures (N Pos), percentage (%) with its lower.
